Resources / Research

Research & Science

Peer-reviewed studies, government approvals, and scientific literature supporting ozone technology.

What the Science Says About Detergent Chemicals

Modern laundry detergents are complex chemical formulations containing dozens of synthetic compounds — surfactants, optical brighteners, fragrances, preservatives, and pH adjusters. While these chemicals are effective at removing soils, a growing body of peer-reviewed research raises serious questions about their long-term effects on human health and the environment.

The following sections summarize the key chemical categories found in commercial detergents, the documented health concerns associated with each, and the scientific case for ozone as a safer, more effective alternative.

Detergent Chemical Categories & Health Concerns

Eight major chemical classes found in commercial laundry detergents and their documented risks.

Surfactants

The primary cleaning agents in detergents. Common types include Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonates (LAS), Alcohol Ethoxylates (AE), and Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs). NPEs are endocrine disruptors banned in the EU but still used in some U.S. formulations.

Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonates (LAS)
Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs)
Alcohol Ethoxylates (AE)
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats)

Optical Brighteners (OBAs)

Fluorescent whitening agents that absorb UV light and re-emit it as visible blue light. They remain in fabric fibers after washing and have direct skin contact. Studies link them to skin sensitization and aquatic toxicity.

Stilbene derivatives
Benzoxazole compounds
Coumarin derivatives
Naphthalimide compounds

Fragrances & Masking Agents

Synthetic fragrance blends can contain hundreds of undisclosed chemicals under a single 'fragrance' label. Many are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) linked to respiratory irritation, allergic reactions, and hormone disruption.

Synthetic musks (galaxolide, tonalide)
Phthalates (fragrance carriers)
Limonene & linalool (oxidation products)
Benzyl acetate

Preservatives & Biocides

Added to prevent microbial growth in liquid detergents. Methylisothiazolinone (MI) and Benzisothiazolinone (BIT) are among the most common and are classified as skin sensitizers and potential neurotoxins.

Methylisothiazolinone (MI)
Benzisothiazolinone (BIT)
Formaldehyde-releasing agents
Parabens

Phosphates & Builders

Water softeners that improve detergent performance. Phosphates are largely phased out in consumer products due to eutrophication of waterways, but alternatives like zeolites and polycarboxylates carry their own environmental concerns.

Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP)
Zeolites
Polycarboxylates (acrylic polymers)
Citrates

Enzymes

Biological catalysts (proteases, lipases, amylases) that break down protein and fat stains. While generally considered low-risk, occupational exposure to enzyme dust is a recognized cause of occupational asthma.

Proteases (subtilisin)
Lipases
Amylases
Cellulases

pH Adjusters & Alkaline Agents

Sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, and similar compounds raise pH to improve cleaning. Residues left in fabrics can cause skin irritation, particularly in individuals with sensitive skin or eczema.

Sodium carbonate (soda ash)
Sodium silicate
Monoethanolamine (MEA)
Sodium hydroxide

Dyes & Colorants

Synthetic dyes give detergents their characteristic colors. Some azo dyes can release carcinogenic aromatic amines under reductive conditions and have been restricted in the EU under REACH regulations.

Azo dyes
Triphenylmethane dyes
Anthraquinone dyes
Fluorescent pigments

Health Research

Hormone-Disrupting Effects on the Human Body

Several chemical classes in laundry detergents are classified as endocrine disruptors — compounds that interfere with the body's hormonal signaling systems.

No single detergent chemical tells the full story. The real concern is cumulative exposure — skin contact with residues in washed fabrics, inhalation of volatile compounds during laundering, and environmental re-entry through wastewater. Individuals wash and wear laundered items daily, creating a continuous low-level exposure pathway that standard safety testing — which evaluates chemicals in isolation — does not fully capture.

Children and pregnant women face the greatest risk, as their endocrine and immune systems are either still developing or under elevated physiological demand. The O3 Pure Ozone Laundry System eliminates the need for detergents entirely — removing every chemical class above from the equation and leaving no residue in fabric fibers.

Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs)

Severity: High

Mimic estrogen in the body. Linked to reproductive abnormalities, reduced sperm count, and early puberty onset. Banned in the EU; restricted but not eliminated in the U.S.

Phthalates & Synthetic Musks

Severity: High

Interfere with androgen and estrogen receptors. Associated with reduced testosterone, altered fetal development, and thyroid disruption. Persist in body fat and breast milk.

Optical Brighteners

Severity: Moderate

Accumulate in skin and fatty tissue. Some stilbene-based OBAs show estrogenic activity in cell studies. Poorly biodegradable — persist in aquatic environments.

Ethanolamine (MEA/DEA/TEA)

Severity: Moderate

Can react with nitrites to form nitrosamines — potent carcinogens. Diethanolamine (DEA) is classified as a possible human carcinogen by the IARC.

Methylisothiazolinone (MI) & BIT

Severity: Moderate

Potent skin sensitizers. MI is classified as a 'strong sensitizer' by the EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety. Linked to contact dermatitis and potential neurotoxicity at high exposures.

Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) & SLES

Severity: Moderate

Disrupt the skin barrier, increasing permeability to other chemicals. SLS is a known irritant; SLES may be contaminated with 1,4-dioxane, a probable human carcinogen.

The Cumulative Burden

A comprehensive review of peer-reviewed science, regulatory approvals, and documented applications of ozone across industries.

Ozone: Technology, Safety & Recognized Benefits

Ozone (O₃) is one of the most thoroughly studied oxidizing agents in science. Decades of research across water treatment, food safety, medicine, and industrial applications have produced a robust body of evidence supporting its efficacy and safety when properly applied. The following sections summarize the key findings across six major research areas.

Technology & Safety

Ozone is generated by passing oxygen through a high-voltage electrical discharge (corona discharge) or UV light, splitting O₂ molecules that recombine as O₃. It is the third most powerful oxidant known, behind fluorine and persulfate, and reverts to oxygen within minutes of use — leaving no chemical residue. At properly controlled concentrations, ozone is safe for use in food processing, water treatment, and laundry applications. OSHA sets the permissible exposure limit (PEL) at 0.1 ppm for an 8-hour workday. Modern ozone systems are engineered to operate well below this threshold.

References

1.Rice, R.G. (1997). Applications of ozone in food processing. Food Technology, 51(6), 56–62.
2.U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Ozone: Permissible Exposure Limits. 29 CFR 1910.1000 Table Z-1.
3.Langlais, B., Reckhow, D.A., & Brink, D.R. (1991). Ozone in Water Treatment: Application and Engineering. Lewis Publishers.

Drinking Water Treatment

Ozone has been used to treat municipal drinking water since 1906, when the first large-scale ozone water treatment plant opened in Nice, France. Today it is used in hundreds of water utilities worldwide, including major U.S. cities. Ozone effectively destroys bacteria, viruses, protozoa (including Cryptosporidium and Giardia — which are resistant to chlorine), and a wide range of organic micropollutants. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recognizes ozone as a primary disinfectant for drinking water under the Surface Water Treatment Rule.

References

1.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (1999). Guidance Manual: Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidants. EPA 815-R-99-014.
2.Gottschalk, C., Libra, J.A., & Saupe, A. (2010). Ozonation of Water and Waste Water. Wiley-VCH.
3.Craun, G.F., et al. (2010). Causes of outbreaks associated with drinking water in the United States from 1971 to 2006. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 23(3), 507–528.

Bottled Water Treatment

The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recognize ozone as the preferred disinfection method for bottled water. Virtually all major bottled water brands — including Evian, Dasani, Aquafina, and Poland Spring — use ozone to disinfect their products before bottling. Ozone leaves no taste, odor, or chemical residue, making it ideal for consumer water products. The FDA has affirmed ozone as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use in bottled water treatment.

References

1.U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2002). Secondary Direct Food Additives Permitted in Food for Human Consumption: Ozone. 21 CFR Part 173.368.
2.International Bottled Water Association (IBWA). Ozone Disinfection in Bottled Water. IBWA Technical Fact Sheet.
3.Masschelein, W.J. (1982). Ozonization Manual for Water and Wastewater Treatment. John Wiley & Sons.

Anti-Microbial Agent with Foods

In 2001, the FDA approved ozone as a direct food contact antimicrobial agent for use on meat, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and other food products. Ozone effectively eliminates E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and other foodborne pathogens on contact surfaces and food products. The USDA's Agricultural Research Service has documented ozone's effectiveness in reducing microbial loads on fresh produce by up to 3 log units (99.9%). Ozone is now widely used in food processing facilities, cold storage, and fresh-cut produce operations.

References

1.U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2001). Secondary Direct Food Additives Permitted in Food for Human Consumption. Federal Register 66(123): 33829–33830.
2.Kim, J.G., Yousef, A.E., & Dave, S. (1999). Application of ozone for enhancing the microbiological safety and quality of foods. Journal of Food Protection, 62(9), 1071–1087.
3.Khadre, M.A., Yousef, A.E., & Kim, J.G. (2001). Microbiological aspects of ozone applications in food: A review. Journal of Food Science, 66(9), 1242–1252.
4.USDA Agricultural Research Service. (2003). Ozone Treatment of Fresh Produce. ARS Research Report.

Government Approvals & Regulatory Recognition

Ozone holds regulatory approval from multiple U.S. and international agencies across a range of applications. The EPA approves ozone for drinking water disinfection, wastewater treatment, and air purification. The FDA has granted GRAS status for ozone in bottled water (1982) and as a direct food contact antimicrobial (2001). The USDA approves ozone use in certified organic food processing. The EU's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) both recognize ozone's efficacy in water disinfection. In the laundry sector, ozone systems are approved for use in healthcare facilities under CDC and CMS infection control guidelines.

References

1.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule. 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142.
2.U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 21 CFR Part 173.368 — Ozone.
3.USDA National Organic Program (NOP). Allowed and Prohibited Substances. 7 CFR Part 205.
4.World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th ed. incorporating 1st addendum. WHO Press.
5.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2008). Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities.

Additional Recognized Benefits & Applications

Beyond water treatment and food safety, ozone has demonstrated efficacy across a broad range of industrial and commercial applications. In laundry, ozone-treated cold water achieves equivalent or superior microbial kill compared to hot water and chemical detergents, with studies showing 99.9% reduction in bacteria including MRSA and C. difficile. In agriculture, ozone is used for soil remediation, irrigation water treatment, and post-harvest storage. In healthcare, ozone is used for surface disinfection, wound care, and dental applications. Environmental applications include industrial wastewater treatment, odor control, and remediation of contaminated groundwater. The pulp and paper industry uses ozone as a chlorine-free bleaching agent.

References

1.Tanner, B.D. (2009). Reduced occupational exposure to aerosolized microorganisms by use of ozonated water for cleaning and disinfecting mops. American Journal of Infection Control, 37(2), 149–155.
2.Sharma, R.R., & Demirci, A. (2003). Treatment of Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated alfalfa seeds and sprouts with electrolyzed oxidizing water. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 86(3), 231–237.
3.Bocci, V. (2005). Ozone: A New Medical Drug. Springer.
4.Glaze, W.H. (1987). Drinking-water treatment with ozone. Environmental Science & Technology, 21(3), 224–230.
5.Rice, R.G., Robson, C.M., Miller, G.W., & Hill, A.G. (1981). Uses of ozone in drinking water treatment. Journal AWWA, 73(1), 44–57.

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